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Biophysical Characterisation of Baobab Parks in Middle and Upper Casamance in Southern Senegal
Tamsir Mbaye,
Ababacar Ndiaye,
Marième Fall Ba,
Dioumacor Fall,
Daouda Ngom
Issue:
Volume 9, Issue 6, November 2021
Pages:
334-341
Received:
4 October 2021
Accepted:
22 October 2021
Published:
5 November 2021
Abstract: In the middle and upper Casamance, the products of the baobab tree (Adansonia digitata L.) make an important contribution to the lives of the population. However, information on the status of baobab populations in this area is insufficient. The aim of this study is to characterise the baobab parks in this area from a biophysical point of view. To do this, the sample involved 756 baobab trees, 89 of which were in hut parks, 223 in villages and 444 in the bush. The parameters assessed on each baobab tree were circumference at 1.3m, total height, crown diameter, number of primary branches, distance between individuals, level of fruiting and signs of anthropisation. The data were subjected to an analysis of variance with the ANOVA test followed by the Student Newman Keuls test at the 05% threshold. The results showed a significant difference (Pvalue <0.05) between parks for each parameter except circumference at 1.3m. The village parks had the highest values for circumference at 1.3m (5.27±2.12m), for crown diameter (14.06±6.62m) and for distance between baobabs (19.12±8m). On the other hand, the tallest baobabs (37.79±8.93m) with the highest number of primary branches (22±14) are observed in the bush parks. According to the structural analysis, the majority of the parks (<50%) have large baobabs. The hut and village parks are dominated by the height and diameter classes of [25-35] m and [5-10] m respectively. On the other hand, in the bush parks, the most represented baobabs are found in the height <35m and diameter [1-5] m classes. Furthermore, the results on fruiting showed that bush parks have more baobabs with a high level of fruiting. Also, concerning anthropisation, high rates (more than 52% of baobabs) were noted for each type of park. These results show an ageing baobab population threatened by strong anthropic pressure. Thus, efforts should be made to ensure the survival of these baobab populations, which are essential to the life of local populations, through better management.
Abstract: In the middle and upper Casamance, the products of the baobab tree (Adansonia digitata L.) make an important contribution to the lives of the population. However, information on the status of baobab populations in this area is insufficient. The aim of this study is to characterise the baobab parks in this area from a biophysical point of view. To d...
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Review on Windbreaks Agroforestry as a Climate Smart Agriculture Practices
Ibsa Dawid Mume,
Sisay Workalemahu
Issue:
Volume 9, Issue 6, November 2021
Pages:
342-347
Received:
16 October 2021
Accepted:
11 November 2021
Published:
17 November 2021
Abstract: Nowadays, climate variability and changes are among the main environmental challenge within the world. The negative implication of global climate change on the agricultural sector is unequivocal, as its consequences affect the livelihoods of particularly smallholder farmers within the tropics. Windbreaks agroforestry practices has been offered as a climate smart agriculture technologies or practices to reduce the global climate variability and climate change. It is one of the most important adaptation and mitigation strategies of climate change. This review paper focuses on the importance of windbreaks agroforestry practices in global climate change adaptation and mitigation, the role of windbreak technology at the farm and landscape levels, effects of windbreaks on reduction wind speed and soil protection, role of windbreaks to reduce the vulnerability of climate change. Windbreaks can improve the efficiency of ecological and ecosystem services provided by natural resource. If planned properly, nitrogen-fixing trees also can provide direct benefits for increasing the productivity of agricultural crops in an organic way and by resulting higher yields. They enhance animal health, feed efficiency, reduce smells, and increase producers' economic returns when utilized in livestock production systems. Windbreaks can help boost crop productivity, diversify goods, and lift farm revenue by improving soil quality and reducing erosion, improving water quality and reducing flooding damage, improving animal habitat and biodiversity, and lowering pest control inputs. Within the final section, the precise challenges to adapting windbreaks agroforestry practices and adoption mechanisms were reviewed. Windbreaks agroforestry systems may prove to be very useful component of agricultural adaptation as both an economically feasible adaptation strategy for smallholder farmers vulnerable to climate change as well as a profitable greenhouse gas mitigation opportunity.
Abstract: Nowadays, climate variability and changes are among the main environmental challenge within the world. The negative implication of global climate change on the agricultural sector is unequivocal, as its consequences affect the livelihoods of particularly smallholder farmers within the tropics. Windbreaks agroforestry practices has been offered as a...
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Impacts of Climate Change on the Forest Ecosystems in Ethiopia
Issue:
Volume 9, Issue 6, November 2021
Pages:
348-351
Received:
20 October 2021
Accepted:
8 November 2021
Published:
17 November 2021
Abstract: Climate change is one of the world’s greatest challenges and creates new constraints for forest ecosystem. Geographic distribution of host trees and their associated insects and pathogens are already affected by climate changes with anticipated increases in pest impacts both by native and invasive pests. Forests and trees throughout the world are increasingly affected by factors related to global climate change. Climate greatly shapes forest’s species composition, structure, productivity, disturbance regimes, water yield, nutrient retention, wildlife habitat and availability of goods and services. Climate change also influences the timing, frequency, and magnitude of disturbances on forest ecosystem which in turn may worsen many of the threats to forests, such as pest outbreaks, fires, human development, and drought. Forest insects are the group of the greatest importance, including species detrimental to forest health. The effects of climate change on forest insects may be reflected in their distribution, phenology and number of generations and indirectly through impact on their natural enemies. Climate changes have direct and indirect effect on the expansion and productivity of forests through changes in temperature, rainfall, weather and alternative interrelated factors. Moreover, elevated levels of carbon dioxide have an impression on plant growth. The increasing temperature and drought have negative impacts on forest species diversity also as ecosystem goods and services to humanity. As atmospheric carbon dioxide increases over the next century, it is expected to become the first or second greatest driver of global biodiversity loss in which many diversity exist in forest ecosystem will be lost. The paper summarizes the impacts of climate change on forest ecosystems and reviewed scientifically by reading different credible books, articles and journals, comprehensive scientific explanations regarding impacts of climate change on forest ecosystem and each resource is well offered in the reference section.
Abstract: Climate change is one of the world’s greatest challenges and creates new constraints for forest ecosystem. Geographic distribution of host trees and their associated insects and pathogens are already affected by climate changes with anticipated increases in pest impacts both by native and invasive pests. Forests and trees throughout the world are i...
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Evaluation of Newly Released Rice Varieties (Oryza Sativa L.) Under Smallholder Farmers’ Condition Through On-Farm Demonstration in Western Ethiopia
Takele Atnafu Delele,
Talefe Ayele Zenebe,
Yaregal Fekadu Simachew
Issue:
Volume 9, Issue 6, November 2021
Pages:
352-357
Received:
6 August 2021
Accepted:
20 August 2021
Published:
19 November 2021
Abstract: Rice is one of the main important food crops in the world. It is the promising and strategic commodity set under Ethiopian food security strategy program. Although consumers’ preference of rice is increasing rapidly, the current production status is unable to meet the existing consumption needs. The evaluation was conducted at Jawe and Pawe districts of Western Ethiopia focusing on the newly released rice varieties under smallholder farmers’ condition. A total of 31 hosted farmers were selected purposively based on their experience and willingness to implement the on-farm demonstration under five rice potential kebeles. Four improved varieties of rice (Pawe-1, Nerica-3, Hidasie and Nerica-12) were the materials used for the demonstration under farmers’ management practices. The evaluation was done on farmers’ field with plot size of 25*25m (625 m2) for each variety. Both qualitative and quantitative data were collected from 51 farmers (20 control group). The collected data were analysed through descriptive and inferential statistics. Farmers’ preference ranking also done to choose the best performed variety based on their own selection criteria. The results of the evaluation revealed that all the demonstrated varieties have a significant yield advantage over the control variety and higher than the national average productivity. The highest mean grain yield (3763..08 kg ha-1) was recorded from Pawe-1 variety with yield advantage of 1027.38 kg and the lowest yield (2735.70 kg ha-1) recorded from the local control variety. Marketability, grain yield, seed color, seed size, tillering capacity and maturity date were the major preference traits for farmers. Pawe-1 was the best preferred and promising variety based on farmers’ preference criteria followed by Nerica-12 variety. The highest technology gap (1136.85 kg) observed from Nerica-3 variety. Results of the overall evaluation indicated that all the evaluated improved rice varieties performed very well in all testing sites. Therefore, the newly released rice varieties with full recommended packages have to be promoted accordingly for large-scale production to enhance its contribution in the national food security strategy program.
Abstract: Rice is one of the main important food crops in the world. It is the promising and strategic commodity set under Ethiopian food security strategy program. Although consumers’ preference of rice is increasing rapidly, the current production status is unable to meet the existing consumption needs. The evaluation was conducted at Jawe and Pawe distric...
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Phenotypic Classification of Coffee (Coffea arabica L.) Germplasm in Southern Ethiopia
Issue:
Volume 9, Issue 6, November 2021
Pages:
358-365
Received:
1 September 2021
Accepted:
1 November 2021
Published:
19 November 2021
Abstract: Ethiopia is the homeland and center of genetic diversity of arabica coffee (Coffea arabica L., Rubiaceae). Although Ethiopia is known as a primary center for Coffea arabica diversity. Identification and characterization of coffee accessions in the base population is important in order to a successful conservation and utilization of genetic resources. Getting more information on genetic variability is a prerequisite for further improvement of coffee (Coffea arabica L.). A field experiment was conducted at Awada Agricultural Research Sub-Center, Ethiopia, to study the magnitude of phenotypic diversity among southern coffee (Coffea arabica L.) germplasm accessions based on qualitative traits. A total of 104 entries consisting of 100 accessions from southern parts of Ethiopia and four standard cultivars were evaluated using augmented design with five blocks. The main objective of the study was to assess morphological variation among germplasm based on phenotypic qualitative characters. Estimates of frequency distribution and Shannon Index based on 13 qualitative traits revealed the existence of genetic variability among 104 coffee germplasm. The highest diversity index (H’) was found for the growth habit followed by the angle of insertion of the primary branches, leaf shape, stipule shape, fruit shape, fruit ribs, fruit color, leaf apex shape, leaf tip color and stem habit. The phenotypic similarities of 104 coffee genotypes were assessed by average linkage methods of cluster analysis using 13 qualitative traits with proc cluster of SAS. Based on the result of this analysis the coffee accessions were classified into five clusters with cluster-I was the largest and consisted of 66 accessions (63.46%) followed by cluster-II consisted of 12 accessions (11.54%), cluster-III consisted of 24 accessions (23.08%), cluster-IV and cluster V consisted of 01 accessions for each (0.96% for each). Thus, there is a chance to develop hybrid vigor through crossing diverged parents found in a different cluster. Generally, the present study revealed the existence of immense genetic variability among coffee germplasm for various important morphological qualitative traits. Hence, there is an opportunity to exploit these traits to improve genotypes that perform better than the existing varieties for the upcoming coffee improvement program.
Abstract: Ethiopia is the homeland and center of genetic diversity of arabica coffee (Coffea arabica L., Rubiaceae). Although Ethiopia is known as a primary center for Coffea arabica diversity. Identification and characterization of coffee accessions in the base population is important in order to a successful conservation and utilization of genetic resource...
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Adaptability and Performance Evaluation of Improved Large Pod Hot Pepper (Capsicum annum L.) Varieties in West and Kellem Wollega Zones
Kibiru Kena,
Alemayehu Latera,
Zewdu Tegenu
Issue:
Volume 9, Issue 6, November 2021
Pages:
366-371
Received:
29 September 2021
Accepted:
3 November 2021
Published:
19 November 2021
Abstract: Large pod hot Pepper is solanaceae family widely grown in many parts of Ethiopia. It is grown as an annual crop and produced for its fruits. It is one of the most important vegetable crops for fresh consumption, for processing and as a spice (for making stew). A field experiment was conducted at Haro Sabu Agricultural Research Center on station, Sedi Canqa and Sayo (Meti) sub sites of Kellem Wollega zone, Western Ethiopia, throughout 2019 and 2020 Melka Awaze, Oda Haro and Mareko Fana majorrainy season. Six large pod hot pepper varieties collected from Melkasa and Bako Agricultural Research and one local check variety were used as planting materials. The combined analysis of variance (ANOVA) for total dry pod yield and other agronomic componentsof seven large pod hot pepper varieties grown at three location locations in 2019 and 2020 on days to flowering, days to maturity, plant height, plant canopy length, number of primary branches per plant, number of pod per plants, pod length, total dry pod yield revealed highly significant varietal difference. Likewise there was significant difference of variety on pod weight. The interaction effect of variety, location and year revealed highly significant effect days to maturity and total yield. In the present experiment, Melka Awaze and Oda Haro varieties were found superior in the case marketable yield (dry pod), tolerant to major disease and other important yield related components. ThereforeMelka Awaze and Oda Haro improved varieties are recommended for popularization and demonstration around the studied areasand similar agro-ecologies in the WestWollega and Kellem Wollega zones of hot pepper producing areas under main natural rain fed.
Abstract: Large pod hot Pepper is solanaceae family widely grown in many parts of Ethiopia. It is grown as an annual crop and produced for its fruits. It is one of the most important vegetable crops for fresh consumption, for processing and as a spice (for making stew). A field experiment was conducted at Haro Sabu Agricultural Research Center on station, Se...
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Effects of Exotic Plantation and Management Intervention on Woody Plant Species Diversity, Regeneration and Soil Seed Bank in Tarmaber District, Ethiopia
Melese Bekele,
Dessie Assefa,
Yohannis Gebremariam
Issue:
Volume 9, Issue 6, November 2021
Pages:
372-389
Received:
16 August 2021
Accepted:
26 October 2021
Published:
23 November 2021
Abstract: Plantations have many economic and environmental benefits, but exotic plantations are widely viewed negatively mainly in relation to biological diversity conservation, and regenerations to prove this dilemma this study is necessary. This study was carried out in Tarmaber district north shewa zone Ethiopia to determine the effect of plantation forest with management intervention on woody plant species diversity, regeneration and soil seed bank species composition in five different forest types. A total of 75 circular sample plots of 314 m2 were established along a transect lines. Soil seed bank analysis was done from soil samples collected in each of the plots (225 samples) to examine the similarity between the soil seed bank and aboveground flora. Different diversity index and ANOVA was used in SPSS software for analysis. The result showed that a total of 51 woody plant species was recorded in adjacent natural forest (41), managed C. lusitanica (27), not managed C. lusitanica (9), managed E. globules (22) and not managed E. globules (13) species. Regeneration of seedlings were 3538, 5567, 707, 1462 and 2524 mean stems ha-1 for natural forest, managed C. lusitanica, not managed C. lusitanica, managed E. globulesand not managed E. globulesrespectively. Unmanaged C. lusitanicaplantations had significantly lower densities of mature tree stems ha-1 as compared to managed C. lusitanica, managed E. globulesand adjacent natural forest (F=14.03, p<0.05). Similarly in terms of sapling density ha-1 unmanaged C. lusitanica was significantly lower from other forest types (F=7.37, p <0.05). However managed C. lusitanicahad significantly higher seedling regeneration (stem density ha-1) than other plantation and adjacent natural forests (F = 16.11, p < 0.05). Generally meanstem densities including tree, sapling and seedling of woody species among different forest types managed C. lusitanica was significantly higher among different forest types (F= 13.01, p<0.05). From the soil seed bank a total of 22 plant species (20 native and 2 exotic) species were recovered. In different forest types the number of species recorded was in adjacent natural forest (19), managed C. lusitanica (11), unmanaged C. lusitanica (4), managed E. globules (7) and unmanaged E. globules (5). The similarity of the soil seed bank was more or less similar to the above ground flora with maximum Sorenson’s similarity values of 0.633. Generally with appropriate management intervention undergrowth vegetation and soil seed bank status in plantation forest had good species composition and diversity.
Abstract: Plantations have many economic and environmental benefits, but exotic plantations are widely viewed negatively mainly in relation to biological diversity conservation, and regenerations to prove this dilemma this study is necessary. This study was carried out in Tarmaber district north shewa zone Ethiopia to determine the effect of plantation fores...
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The Effect of Plant Population Density on Yield and Yield Parameters of Potato, Maize and Beans in an Intercropping System in Bambili, the Western Highlands of Cameroon
Tatah Eugene Lendzemo,
Che Terence Nfongeh,
Chi Christopher Tamu,
Dominic Khumbah Njualem
Issue:
Volume 9, Issue 6, November 2021
Pages:
390-396
Received:
1 October 2021
Accepted:
15 November 2021
Published:
23 November 2021
Abstract: Plant population density in intercropping system is known to directly affect competition among component crop as well as their yields. In a bit to establish appropriate population density in an intercropping system in Bambili, a field experiment was conducted with treatments Sole Potato (33,333 plants/ha), Sole maize (40,000 plants/ha), sole beans (66,666 plants/ha), potato 30 cm/maize 25 cm (73,333 plants/ha), potato 30 cm/maize 50 cm (53333 plants/ha), potato 30 cm/beans 15 cm (99,999 plants/ha), potato 30 cm/beans 30 cm (66,666 plants/ha) and potato 30 cm/Maize 100 cm/Beans 60 cm (59,333 plants/ha) using a Randomized Complete Block Design with four (4) replicates. Data was collected on growth and yield parameters and the analysis of variance (ANOVA) was done using the Statistical Package for Social Sciences (SPSS) version 26. Means were separated using Fischer’s least significance difference (LSD). Results obtained showed that intercropping potato, maize and beans had no effect on percentage emergence and percentage plant vigor but significant differences (P≤ 0.05) on plant height and groundcover. Significant differences (P≤ 0.05) between numbers of tubers per potato plants were obtained in both intercropping and sole cropping while the differences in the number of pods per beans plant and number of cobs per maize plant were not significant (P≥ 0.05). Intercropping had a negative effect on the average weight of tubers per potato plant which resulted to lower tuber weights per plant in intercropping as compared to sole cropping. In the case of beans and maize, intercropping had no significant effect (P≥ 0.05) on the average weight of pods, but there was significant (P≤ 0.05) difference in the average weight of maize grains. Overall the yields of potato per hectare, maize per hectare and beans per hectare were significantly (P≤ 0.05) affected by intercropping. Comparing the intercropping treatments, potato/maize at 25 cm had the best maize grain yield (1.7 tons/ha) while potato/beans at 15 cm had the best beans yield (2.4 tons/ha). More research on Potato /beans (99,999 plants/ha), Potato /maize (53333 plants/ha) and Potato /maize (73,333 plants/ha) as appropriate intercropping systems is recommended.
Abstract: Plant population density in intercropping system is known to directly affect competition among component crop as well as their yields. In a bit to establish appropriate population density in an intercropping system in Bambili, a field experiment was conducted with treatments Sole Potato (33,333 plants/ha), Sole maize (40,000 plants/ha), sole beans ...
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Status of Selected Physicochemical Properties of Soils Under Long Term Sugarcane Cultivation Fields at Wonji-Shoa Sugar Estate
Issue:
Volume 9, Issue 6, November 2021
Pages:
397-408
Received:
25 September 2021
Accepted:
17 November 2021
Published:
25 November 2021
Abstract: A declining trend in per hectare yield of sugarcane in Wonji-Shoa Sugar Estate is being observed due to altering of soil physicochemical properties resulted from long term sugarcane cultivation. Cognizant of this fact, a study was conducted in 2017at Wonji-Shoa Sugar Estate with the objective of determining the effects of more than 62 years of sugarcane cultivation on the physicochemical properties of soil. In order to achieve this objective disturbed and undisturbed soil samples were collected from 0-30 and 30-60 cm layers of selected cultivated and uncultivated light and heavy soils for laboratory analysis. Results of the study indicated that long term cultivation of sugarcane at the same depth and low soil organic matter content of cultivated fields induced soil compaction and consequently highest bulk density was recorded in subsoil layer of cultivated than uncultivated land. The bulk density and total porosity values were out of ranges recommended for optimum sugarcane cultivation and suggest the existence of some degree of compaction. The finding further showed that the pH of study area soils is out of the normal pH range for sugarcane plant growth. The soil organic carbon, total nitrogen content and available phosphorus concentration of soils under both land uses of all soils was found within low range. Therefore, based on the result of the study it can be concluded that under condition of strong base soil pH of study area the availability of essential nutrients are critically affected. This indicates that the strong pH values at Wonji-Shoa Estate require more attention. Moreover, the low levels of organic carbon, total nitrogen, and available P contents under both cultivated and uncultivated soils indicated that soil fertility is among the constraints for sustainable sugarcane production in the estate. Based on the findings and conclusions of this study one can recommend that to maintain sustainability of sugarcane production in the estate soil management practices that can protect as well as ameliorate soil compaction, increase soil organic carbon, total nitrogen, soil available P and that can decrease soil pH are important. Nevertheless, in order to give conclusive recommendation further research studies are needed for more soil management units in the estate.
Abstract: A declining trend in per hectare yield of sugarcane in Wonji-Shoa Sugar Estate is being observed due to altering of soil physicochemical properties resulted from long term sugarcane cultivation. Cognizant of this fact, a study was conducted in 2017at Wonji-Shoa Sugar Estate with the objective of determining the effects of more than 62 years of suga...
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Managing the Imminent Danger of Rice Blast (Pyricularia oryzae Cav.) and Sheath Blight (Rhizoctonia solani Kühn) Disease: A Critical Review Article
Rajendra Persaud,
Danata McGowan,
Mahendra Persaud
Issue:
Volume 9, Issue 6, November 2021
Pages:
409-423
Received:
31 July 2021
Accepted:
8 November 2021
Published:
24 December 2021
Abstract: Rice is one of the most important crop planted on earth. It provide food and employment for thousands of persons daily through out the world. In Guyana the rice industry is one of the largest user of agricultural lands and contributies more than 20% to the country gross domestic product (GDP). The rice crop is known to suffer from several biotic and abiotic factors. Of which rice blast (P. oryzae) and sheath blight (R. solani) disease identified as two of the most devastating disease affecting the rice cultivation in Guyana. In this context, the present critical review article entitled ‘Managing the imminent danger of Rice Blast (Pyricularia oryzae Cav.) and Sheath Blight (Rhizoctonia solani Kühn) Disease’ was taken up to look at the most practical disease management approaches available and can be utilized to mitigate the imminent threat pose by the rice blast and sheath blight disease. The review will focus on: disease resistant screening and understand the genotype and environment interactions; study the expression pattern of proteins in resistant and susceptible genotypes against blast pathogen (P. oryzae); examine the efficacy of botanicals, biocontrol agents and new generation fungicides against blast and sheath blight disease under different conditions. This will form a foundation for the exploration of the various disease management stratigies for blast and sheath blight disease.
Abstract: Rice is one of the most important crop planted on earth. It provide food and employment for thousands of persons daily through out the world. In Guyana the rice industry is one of the largest user of agricultural lands and contributies more than 20% to the country gross domestic product (GDP). The rice crop is known to suffer from several biotic an...
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An Assessment of Input Cost At Different Stages of Rice Growth and Its Effect on Production Cost on Cobb-Douglas Function in Cambodia
Sar Sary,
Bun Phearin,
Sarin Sereyvatha,
Sar Saren,
Srey Sophyn,
Muyobozi Sikalubya
Issue:
Volume 9, Issue 6, November 2021
Pages:
424-430
Received:
7 December 2021
Accepted:
21 December 2021
Published:
31 December 2021
Abstract: The data analyzed in this study was obtained through a household survey from the three provinces in Cambodia. The sampling was done through which 540 farmer households were randomly selected. It applied Cobb-Douglas cost to examine the effect of input cost in different stages of rice growth on the total production cost. The result reveals that dry paddy, a 1% increase in the cost of the seedling stage would increase the rice production cost by approximately 25%. A 1% increase in input cost of jointing and booting stages would increase rice cost to 15%. And a 1% increase in farm size would increase output cost by roughly 17%. It means that the percentage change of the input cost of dry paddy would change output cost by 1%. In wet paddy, a 1% increase in input cost of the tillering stage would increase the rice cost by 28%. A 1% input cost of popular and milk stages would affect the output cost to approximately around 24%. A 1% increase in income off-farm jobs would increase rice costs by 11%. The elements of cost inputs of rice growth stages include fertilizer, pesticides, herbicides, irrigation, hired labor; land preparation and transportation stand out as the most crucial factors to contribute to the increment of cost output in wet paddy. These findings have a significant impact on how to boost rice production in Cambodia. Farmers are likely to benefit the most from improved agricultural productivity and technology. The study emphasizes that Cambodian farmers need to focus on agriculture to achieve increased rice production and poverty reduction in rural areas. As most of Cambodia includes poor people who live in rural areas and depend on agriculture, high agricultural growth will provide food security by increasing supply, reducing prices, and increasing households’ income.
Abstract: The data analyzed in this study was obtained through a household survey from the three provinces in Cambodia. The sampling was done through which 540 farmer households were randomly selected. It applied Cobb-Douglas cost to examine the effect of input cost in different stages of rice growth on the total production cost. The result reveals that dry ...
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