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Review Article | | Peer-Reviewed

Application of 2-D Molybdenum Disulfide in the Field of Photoelectric Detection

Xiaochen Sun,  Jiaying Jian*,  Zengyun Jian
Published in Engineering and Applied Sciences (Volume 9, Issue 4)
Received: 22 January 2024     Accepted: 7 August 2024     Published: 27 August 2024
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Abstract

The research of photodetectors is rooted in the principle of photoelectric effect, which has become indispensable in human society. Photodetectors convert light signals into electrical signals and represent a crucial subdivision within modern optoelectronic technology. They play significant roles in optical communications, remote sensing, biomedical applications, industrial automation, and more. Two-dimensional MoS2 has attracted considerable attention in optoelectronics due to its unique structure and performance characteristics. The research methods for photodetectors primarily include: Material Selection: Using semiconductor materials such as silicon, germanium, gallium arsenide, and indium arsenide. Silicon, in particular, is widely applied in optical communications, computer networks, medical diagnostics, and more. Technological Improvements: This involves high sensitivity detection techniques, automatic alignment technologies, and composite integration techniques to enhance the performance and application domains of photodetectors. Application Development: Exploring new applications of photodetectors in optical communications, medical imaging, security monitoring, etc., and improving their reliability and efficiency in practical applications.Research on photodetectors not only enhances their efficiency and performance in fields like communication, medicine, and security monitoring but also lays a solid foundation for future technological innovation and application expansion. With continuous advancements in technology, photodetectors are demonstrating vast application prospects and substantial market potential. Finally, the prospects and challenges associated with photodetectors in practical applications are also discussed.

Published in Engineering and Applied Sciences (Volume 9, Issue 4)
DOI 10.11648/j.eas.20240904.11
Page(s) 53-62
Creative Commons

This is an Open Access article, distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/), which permits unrestricted use, distribution and reproduction in any medium or format, provided the original work is properly cited.

Copyright

Copyright © The Author(s), 2024. Published by Science Publishing Group
Previous article
Keywords

Two-Dimensional MoS2, Photodetectors, Photoelectric Performances

1. Introduction
Photodetectors (PDs) have a wide range of applications in various fields such as industrial, defense, military, environmental monitoring, and biology
 [1-8]
. To advance the development of high-performance PDs, researchers are exploring two-dimensional (2D) semiconductor materials, focusing particularly on 2D transition metal dichalcogenides (TMDs) such as MoS2, WS2, MoSe2, WSe2, MoTe2, and WTe2, due to their unique electronic, optical, magnetic, and thermal properties
[9-15].
These materials offer a versatile platform for designing advanced PDs that can overcome limitations of traditional PDs, including complex preparation processes and low-temperature operation
[3, 11]
.
Among TMDs, molybdenum disulfide (MoS2) stands out as a representative material with distinct physical, optical, and electrical properties, making it a promising candidate for next-generation PDs
[16-20]
. MoS2 features a 'three-layer' structure (S-Mo-S), where S layers sandwich Mo layers. This structure is characterized by strong covalent or ionic bonds within layers, with weaker bonding forces between layers
[21-23]
. MoS2 exhibits an intrinsic and tunable bandgap, along with relatively high carrier mobility, surpassing graphene in its potential for PD applications
[24-26]
. In bulk form, MoS2 is an indirect-gap semiconductor with a bandgap of 1.2 eV, whereas single-layer MoS2 transitions to a direct-gap semiconductor with a bandgap of 1.8 eV due to quantum confinement
[27]
. Monolayer MoS2 demonstrates a single-layer mobility of 200 cm2 V-1 s-1, increasing to 500 cm2 V-1 s-1 for few layers, highlighting its attractiveness for high-performance optoelectronic devices
[25, 28]
.
Figure 1. Molecular structure of MoS2
[21]
.
Despite facing challenges such as low light absorptivity and higher dark current, MoS2-based PDs can overcome these limitations by integrating with other semiconductors. The dangling bonds on the free surface of 2D materials facilitate their integration into mixed-dimensional van der Waals heterostructures. This approach combines the unique advantages of 2D materials with those of different dimensional materials, effectively addressing the drawbacks mentioned and expanding the application potential of photodetection.
2. Preparation Method of Molybdenum Disulfide
Fabricating high-performance photodetectors requires producing highly crystalline and top-quality molybdenum disulfide (MoS2). Common methods include scotch tape-based micromechanical exfoliation
[16, 24]
, intercalation-assisted exfoliation
[29-31]
, liquid exfoliation
[32]
, physical vapor deposition
[33, 34]
, hydrothermal synthesis
[35]
, and chemical vapor deposition
 [36, 37]
. Feng et al.
[38]
employed a solvothermal approach to fabricate MoS2 nanosheets, achieving an average size of approximately 90 nm with thickness ranging from 10 to 20 nm. Ji et al. utilized liquid exfoliation to prepare two-dimensional MoS2 nanosheets
[39]
, resulting in nanosheets with lateral sizes in the range of a few micrometers and thicknesses varying from approximately 1 to 10 nm.
Currently, research on photoelectric detection equipment predominantly utilizes the mechanical exfoliation method
[40-45]
. This method involves using scotch tape to peel single and multi-layer MoS2 films from bulk MoS2, which are subsequently deposited onto Si/SiO2 substrates. Qiao et al. successfully synthesized large-area, high crystalline quality vertically few-layered MoS2 (V-MoS2) nanosheets using the chemical vapor deposition (CVD) technique. These nanosheets were grown on a Si/SiO2 (300 nm) substrate, as shown in Figure 2a and 2b
[46]
. The V-MoS2 structure consisted of vertically layered nanosheets with an average thickness of approximately 3 nm (equivalent to 4 layers of MoS2) and a height of about 2 μm.
Figure 2. From the top to the bottom, and (b) Cross-sectional SEM images of V-MoS2.
[46].
Additionally, Pak et al. fabricated monolayer MoS2 using CVD, grown on a SiO2 (300 nm)/Si substrate. The morphology of the monolayer MoS2 was triangular, with a thickness measured at approximately 0.7 nm, as depicted in Figure 3(a) and (b) inset
[47]
.
Figure 3. Optical image (a) and AFM topography image (b) of monolayer MoS2
[47]
.
3. Wavelength Detection Range of MoS2 and Its Heterojunctions PDs
MoS2 and its heterojunction photodetectors demonstrate broad waveband detection capabilities spanning from ultraviolet to infrared. For instance, the MoS2/CdTe p-n heterojunction photodetector exhibits a broadband spectrum response from 200 nm up to 1700 nm
[3]
. Similarly, the vertical multilayered MoS2/Si homojunction photodetector shows a wide detection spectrum from visible to near-infrared
[48]
. Additionally, the MoS2/Black phosphorus heterojunction photodetector covers the visible to mid-infrared spectral range
[49]
. Moreover, the MoS2/GaAs heterojunction photodetector offers a broad response spectrum from deep ultraviolet (DUV) to near-infrared (NIR)
[50]
. Furthermore, a few-layer MoS2 Schottky photodetector with back-to-back MSM geometry enables broadband photodetection from the visible to UV regions
[51]
. Lastly, the vertical layered MoS2/Si heterojunction photodetector exhibits a wide photoresponse ranging from 350 to 1100 nm
[46]
.
4. Photocurrent Generation Mechanism
The main mechanisms of photocurrent generation including photovoltaic effect, photoc-onductive effect and photothermoelectric effect.
4.1. Photovoltaic Effect
In the photovoltaic (PV) effect, a semiconductor PN junction generates electron-hole (e-h) pairs upon absorbing incident photons with sufficient energy. When the optoelectronic device is illuminated without external voltage, these photogenerated e-h pairs can be separated by the built-in electric field originating from either a p-n junction or a Schottky junction at the interface between the semiconductor and metal contact. The separated charges flow in opposite directions through the junction area, thereby generating photocurrent in the external circuit
[52-56]. 
The internal electric field is established at the Schottky barrier or PN junction interface, as illustrated in Figure 4(a). Figure 4(b) depicts the I-V characteristics of the PN junction under illumination and in darkness
[57]
.
Figure 4. Schematic diagram of the photovoltaic effect. (a) Band alignment in a PN junction. (b) I-V curves in the dark and under illumination
[57]
.
4.2. Photoconductive Effect
In the photoconductive effect, incident light radiation energizes the semiconductor, inducing excess carriers that increase the free carrier concentration and thus reduce the electrical resistance
[58-61]
. These excess carriers are separated under an applied bias voltage, generating photocurrent as a result
[62-65]
. In the absence of light, a small dark current flows between the two electrodes (Figure 5(a)). When the device is illuminated, photons with energy (Eph) higher than the bandgap (Ebg) create electron-hole pairs that are then separated by the applied voltage (Figure 5(b))
[57]
.
Figure 5. Schematic diagram of the photoconductive effect. (a) without illumination. (b) Under illumination
[57]
.
4.3. Photothermoelectric Effect
The photothermoelectric effect (PTE) is a thermal phenomenon induced by light irradiation
[66-69]
. When the detector absorbs light radiation energy, the smaller spot of light compared to the size of the device channel causes a change in the semiconductor's temperature, resulting in a temperature gradient across the semiconductor channel
[70-72]
. Figure 6
[57]
illustrates different temperature differentials (ΔT) at the two ends of the semiconductor channel. Utilizing the Seebeck effect, this ΔT can be converted into a voltage difference (ΔV). According to the Seebeck coefficient (S), the magnitude of ΔV is linearly proportional to the temperature gradient:
ΔV = S∙ΔT(1)
For example, a steady-state ΔT was keptbetween two junctions by a focused illumination on the electrical contacts, leding to a voltage difference (ΔVPTE):
ΔVPTE= (Ssemiconductor - Smetal)∙ΔT ≈ Ssemiconductor∙ΔT(2)
Usually, the magnitude of VPTE often ranges from tens of µV to tens of mV. Therefore, a high-quality Ohmic contact of the metal and semiconductor contacts is required.
Figure 6. Schematic diagram of the photo-thermoelectric effect. (a) Schematic of a field-effect transistor. (b) Thermal circuit corresponding to the device depicted in (a)
[57]
.
5. Performance Parameters of Photodetector
5.1. Photoresponsivity (R)
RI=IPh/P(3)
where IPh is the photocurrent, P is the incident light power, which is one of the main performance indexes of photoelectric detectors.
Photoresponsivity is explained as the ratio of the photocurrent to the incident light power, that is, the ratio of output electric signal current size to input optical signal power size, expressed as:
The MoS2/CdSe hybrid phototransistor was designed by Ra et al.
[73]
, which exhibited excellent photodetector performances, such as the responsivity of the device was 2.5×105 A/W, MoS2/CdSe phototransistor schematic diagram was shown from figure 7.
Figure 7. MoS2/CdSe phototransistor
[73]
.
The MoS2/PbS quantum dot photodetector was made by Kufer et al.
[74]
, which showed dramatically higher responsivity of 6×105AW-1, the photodetector architecture was illustrated in Figure 8a with a cross sectional view of the photoelectric detection device operation in Figure 8b.
Figure 8. a 3D view and b Cross sectional view of MoS2/PbS quantum dot photodetector
[74]
.
Few-layer MoS2 lied above monolayer molybdenum MoS2 of a sensitized MoS2 phototransistor was fabricated by Yang et al.
[75]
, which exhibited an ultrahigh responsivity of ~105-106 AW-1 (at zero and positive Vg) due to the special construction of MoS2 phototransistor (the schematic of MoS2 phototransistor from top and side views was shown in Figure 9a and b, respectively,), thus the photon absorption and higher mobility enhanced.
Figure 9. (a) Top view and (b) side view of the MoS2 phototransistor schematic diagram
[75]
.
5.2. Normalized Detectivity (D*)
Normalized Detectivity is also one of the main performance indexes to characterize the sensitivity of photoelectric detectors, which represents the sensitivity of photoelectric detectors, Normalized detectivity is expressed as:
(4)
where A is the area of detectrs, B is the bandwidth, iN is the noise current spectra at 1 Hz bandwidth with units of A Hz-1/2, R is the Photoresponsivity, the D* is measured in cm Hz1/2 W-1 (Jones)
[76]
. The detectivity of the MoS2/CdSe hybrid phototransistor was 1.24×1014 Jones, the device was designed by Ra et al.
[73]
. Monolayer MoS2/GaAs heterostructure self-driven photodetector was fabricated by Xu et al. with the detectivity of 1.9×1014Jones
[77]
. Kufer et al. made the MoS2/PbS photodetector with extremely high detectivity of 5×1014Jones
[74]
.
5.3. Response Speed
The response speed is also one of the key parameters of the photodetectors, a short response time represents a fast response speed, which reflects the sensitivity, ensuring a varied optical signal can be significantly followed
[78-80]
. In the time domain, the response speed of PDs is usually characterized by the rise time ( τr, the time interval of the maximum photocurrent from 10% to 90% ) and the fall time ( τf, the time interval of the maximum photocurrent from 90% to 10% ) of the steady-state photocurrent.
[48, 81-83].
When the PDs is exposed to different wavelengths of light, the incident light is absorbed will result in the generation of electron-hole pairs, which will be quickly separated by the strong built-in electric field in p-n junction or different doping interval and then transferred to the electrodes, leading to an increase in photocurrent and a fast response speed. Near-infrared photodetector based on MoS2/black phosphorus heterojunction was manufactured by Ye et al. with a fast response speed, the response was characterized by a typical rise time of τr=15µs and τf=70µs
[49]
. The V-MoS2/Si heterojunction photodetector was composited by Qiao et al.
[46]
, because of the special vertical structure of the photodetector was illustrated in Figure 10, which demonstrated excellent photoelectric property, particularly an ultrahigh response speed (rise time ~ 56 ns, fall time ~ 825 ns) by time response measurements, which is the fastest response speed achieved at present in different 2D-based photodetectors.
Figure 10. Schematic illustration of the V-MoS2/Si heterojunction PD
[46]
.
Table 1. Performance of 2-D MoS2 and its heterojunctions devices.

Materials

R (A W−1)

Response speed

D*(Jones)

Ref

MoS2

~105-106

–

9.3×1012

[7
5]

MoS2

880

4/9s

–

[27]

MoS2

0.57

70/110μs

~1010

[5
1]

MoS2/p-Si

908.2 mA/W

56/ 825 ns

1.889×1013

[4
6]

MoS2 /n-Si

11.9

30.5/71.6μs

2.1×1010

[
48]

MoS2/CdTe

36.6 mA/W

43.7/82.1μs

6.1×1010

[
3]

MoS2/CdSe

2.5×105

60/60ms

1.24×1014

[77]

MoS2/GaAs

35.2 mA /W

3.4/15.6ms

1.96×1013

[5
0]

MoS2/ZnO-QDs

2267

12 /26s

2.1×1011

[8
4]

MoS2/Graphene

104mA /W

0.28/1.5s

–

[8
5]

MoS2/PbS

6×105

–/~0.35s

5×1014

[7
4]

MoS2/GaAs

0.419

17/31μs

1.9 ×1014

[
77]

MoS2/b-P

22.3

15/70μs

3.1×1011

[
49]

MoS2/b-AsP

0.22

0.54/0.52 ms

9.2 × 109

[
86]

MoS2/GaAs

0.43mA /W

1.87/3.53 ms

2.28×1011

[
87]

MoS2/β-Ga2O3

2.05mA /W

–

1.21×1011

[
88]

MoS2/MoTe2

0.86

–

~ 1011

[
89]

MoS2/CuPc

~1.98

–/< 0.3 s

~6.1×1010

[21]

Graphene/MoS2/Si

0.6

17/48 ns,

8×1012

[9
0]

MoS2/WS2

2.3

–

–

[9
1]

MoS2/Si

≈300mA/W

3/40μs

≈1013

[9
2]
6. Conclusion and Prospect
In this review, recent state-of-the-art photodetectors based on 2D layered MoS2 and their heterostructures have been introduced. This photodetectors have a promising prospect in the field of detection and application due to excellent photoelectric performances in broadband spectrum detection, ultrahigh photoresponsivity, fast response speed and higher normalized detectivity.
In recent years, 2D layered MoS2 based photodetectors rapid development has been achieved. Despite the many advantages mentioned above, MoS2 based photodetectors with many problems are faced and still have much development ahead for practical applications. 2D materials tend to have a low absorption of light due to their thickness, how to work stably and efficiently for a long time is also a problem for 2D semiconductor optoelectronic devices. In order to realize high-performance 2D photoelectric detector and meet various practical needs, efforts can be made from the following aspects in the future: preparing 2D materials with high quality, using some optical methods to improve the absorption of 2D materials and doping or modifying 2D materials to improve the performance of the PDs.
Abbreviations

DUV

Deep-Ultraviolet

PDs

Photodetectors

2D

Two-Dimensional

TMDs

Transition Metal Dichalcogenides

MoS2

Molybdenum Disulphide

NIR

Near-Infrared

PV

Photovoltaic

PTE

Photothermoelectric Effec
Funding
This work is supported by the National Science Foundation of China (Grant No. 62204197).
National Science Foundation of China (Grant No. 62204197), Shaanxi Provincial Department of Education (Grant No. 22JK0408), Shaanxi Provincial Department of Science and Technology (Grant No. 2023KJXX-149)，Xi'an Association for Science and Technology (Grant No. 959202313058)
Conflicts of Interest
The authors declare that they have no known competing financial interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence the work reported in this paper.
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    Sun, X., Jian, J., Jian, Z. (2024). Application of 2-D Molybdenum Disulfide in the Field of Photoelectric Detection. Engineering and Applied Sciences, 9(4), 53-62. https://doi.org/10.11648/j.eas.20240904.11

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    Sun, X.; Jian, J.; Jian, Z. Application of 2-D Molybdenum Disulfide in the Field of Photoelectric Detection. Eng. Appl. Sci. 2024, 9(4), 53-62. doi: 10.11648/j.eas.20240904.11

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    AMA Style

    Sun X, Jian J, Jian Z. Application of 2-D Molybdenum Disulfide in the Field of Photoelectric Detection. Eng Appl Sci. 2024;9(4):53-62. doi: 10.11648/j.eas.20240904.11

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  • @article{10.11648/j.eas.20240904.11,
  author = {Xiaochen Sun and Jiaying Jian and Zengyun Jian},
  title = {Application of 2-D Molybdenum Disulfide in the Field of Photoelectric Detection
},
  journal = {Engineering and Applied Sciences},
  volume = {9},
  number = {4},
  pages = {53-62},
  doi = {10.11648/j.eas.20240904.11},
  url = {https://doi.org/10.11648/j.eas.20240904.11},
  eprint = {https://article.sciencepublishinggroup.com/pdf/10.11648.j.eas.20240904.11},
  abstract = {The research of photodetectors is rooted in the principle of photoelectric effect, which has become indispensable in human society. Photodetectors convert light signals into electrical signals and represent a crucial subdivision within modern optoelectronic technology. They play significant roles in optical communications, remote sensing, biomedical applications, industrial automation, and more. Two-dimensional MoS2 has attracted considerable attention in optoelectronics due to its unique structure and performance characteristics. The research methods for photodetectors primarily include: Material Selection: Using semiconductor materials such as silicon, germanium, gallium arsenide, and indium arsenide. Silicon, in particular, is widely applied in optical communications, computer networks, medical diagnostics, and more. Technological Improvements: This involves high sensitivity detection techniques, automatic alignment technologies, and composite integration techniques to enhance the performance and application domains of photodetectors. Application Development: Exploring new applications of photodetectors in optical communications, medical imaging, security monitoring, etc., and improving their reliability and efficiency in practical applications.Research on photodetectors not only enhances their efficiency and performance in fields like communication, medicine, and security monitoring but also lays a solid foundation for future technological innovation and application expansion. With continuous advancements in technology, photodetectors are demonstrating vast application prospects and substantial market potential. Finally, the prospects and challenges associated with photodetectors in practical applications are also discussed.
},
 year = {2024}
}

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  • TY  - JOUR
T1  - Application of 2-D Molybdenum Disulfide in the Field of Photoelectric Detection

AU  - Xiaochen Sun
AU  - Jiaying Jian
AU  - Zengyun Jian
Y1  - 2024/08/27
PY  - 2024
N1  - https://doi.org/10.11648/j.eas.20240904.11
DO  - 10.11648/j.eas.20240904.11
T2  - Engineering and Applied Sciences
JF  - Engineering and Applied Sciences
JO  - Engineering and Applied Sciences
SP  - 53
EP  - 62
PB  - Science Publishing Group
SN  - 2575-1468
UR  - https://doi.org/10.11648/j.eas.20240904.11
AB  - The research of photodetectors is rooted in the principle of photoelectric effect, which has become indispensable in human society. Photodetectors convert light signals into electrical signals and represent a crucial subdivision within modern optoelectronic technology. They play significant roles in optical communications, remote sensing, biomedical applications, industrial automation, and more. Two-dimensional MoS2 has attracted considerable attention in optoelectronics due to its unique structure and performance characteristics. The research methods for photodetectors primarily include: Material Selection: Using semiconductor materials such as silicon, germanium, gallium arsenide, and indium arsenide. Silicon, in particular, is widely applied in optical communications, computer networks, medical diagnostics, and more. Technological Improvements: This involves high sensitivity detection techniques, automatic alignment technologies, and composite integration techniques to enhance the performance and application domains of photodetectors. Application Development: Exploring new applications of photodetectors in optical communications, medical imaging, security monitoring, etc., and improving their reliability and efficiency in practical applications.Research on photodetectors not only enhances their efficiency and performance in fields like communication, medicine, and security monitoring but also lays a solid foundation for future technological innovation and application expansion. With continuous advancements in technology, photodetectors are demonstrating vast application prospects and substantial market potential. Finally, the prospects and challenges associated with photodetectors in practical applications are also discussed.

VL  - 9
IS  - 4
ER  -

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Author Information

  • Xiaochen Sun

    School of Materials and Chemical Engineering, Xi’an Technological University, Xi’an, China

  • Jiaying Jian

    School of Materials and Chemical Engineering, Xi’an Technological University, Xi’an, China

    Contact Email

  • Zengyun Jian

    School of Materials and Chemical Engineering, Xi’an Technological University, Xi’an, China

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